they formed the court and the aristocracy, and thus their method of speaking became the fashionable tongue. It was in Norman French that all the great people spoke, and in this language the laws were written and the pleadings conducted in the courts. The Saxon tongue has gradually overcome it, and now forms the staple of the conversation and literature of、 the country; but there are still several curious relics of the use of the Norman. Thus, the form in which the royal assent is given to a bill after it has passed through Parliament is in the words, la reine le veut, "the queen wills it so." To descend to smaller formalities, some public officers, when making proclamations, begin by saying "Oh yes," three times. This is a corruption of the French, ouiez, "listen." Our terms of cookery are a relic of the Norman language, showing how it was used by the great at their entertainments, while the common people spoke in Saxon. Thus, when the flesh of the ox is produced at table, it is called beef, from the French bœuf, an ox. The pig, hog, or sow, while it is in the sty, and in charge of the swine-herd, bears a pure Saxon name, but when cooked it is Frenchified into pork. The sheep becomes mutton (mouton), and the calf veal (veau); while in Scotland, among the household words not employed in England, is the gigot (Fr. gigot). In other countries, where the upper and the lower classes have always spoken the same language, there is no such difference. The French call the animals by the same name whether they are alive or cooked, and the Germans speak of calves' flesh and swine's flesh.

While Norman French was employed by the aristocracy and the lawyers, Latin was the language chiefly used by the clergy and men of science and literature. Both in England and Scotland, the few who wrote in the vernacular tongue before the time of Henry VIII. found it necessary to apologize for so doing. The English language derived some of its peculiarities from the Norman spoken by the aristocracy, and others from the Latin used by the learned. The nature of the Greek language renders it peculiarly useful for scientific purposes, and in a few instances, from having been so used, it has crept into ordinary discourse-thus, for example, the word surgeon, of old spelt chirurgeon, is derived from the Greek, cheir, meaning hand, and ergon, work. Such terms as orthography, syntax, lithography, &c., are also derived from the Greek; and it is worthy of notice that one of the most important English words, church, is formed from two Greek

words signifying the house of the Lord. On the whole, however, the number of words in our language derived directly from the Greek is very scanty; but a large portion of our vocabulary, as every one who acquires a little knowledge of the structure of languages soon finds out, is derived from the Latin. The instances are so frequent that it is useless to refer to them.

5. Thus, the English of the present day is the Saxon tongue, with a very small quantity of Greek, a larger portion of Latin, and a few peculiarities belonging to the French and other languages mixed up with it. It is a remarkable thing that though the Gothic population of these islands has been so intimately associated with the Celts in Ireland, in the Highlands of Scotland, and, according to the general belief, in Wales, yet there are hardly any words of Celtic origin in the English language.

The words English language must not be supposed to apply to the speech of the people born and brought up in England, and to them only. It is that which the educated and refined part of the inhabitants of England, Scotland, and Ireland, speak and write. Scotsmen have had to do with it as well as Englishmen, since it has been made by the literature of the whole kingdom. The illiterate classes in all parts of the country speak peculiar provincial dialects; and to a person who merely knows our language from books, the conversation of the working classes at the east end of London would appear as grotesque and as unlike true English as if it were the broadest Scotch, or the strongest Irish brogue.

The English language has several peculiarities which distinguish it from the other European tongues. In France, Spain, and Portugal, the language of the original inhabitants was in a manner suppressed by the Roman, and to this day an acquaintance with Latin is the best introduction to a knowledge of French, Spanish, and Portuguese. On the other hand, in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Holland, the language of the people is of almost purely Gothic origin, and has scarcely taken a tinge from the Latin. Thus, our own is the only great European speech which is derived not from one but from a variety of sources, and is made up as it were from fragments taken here and there from other tongues.

6. The different languages that have been spoken, or are still spoken by the inhabitants of this empire, are shown strongly in the names of persons and places. While the.

Romans held rule in the island, a number of the principal personages would have Roman terminations to their names, like the general Aurelius Ambrosius. But none of these names have come down to our time; and no family can trace its descent back to the Roman period, although it is said that the Courtenays are the descendants of Roman emperors. As to places the names ending in chester or caster have been already mentioned as derived from Roman fortresses or fortified camps. Some other places obtained Roman names at a later period, probably from churchmen connected with them, and for some ecclesiastical purpose-such as Ashby Puerorum, Dalby Magna, &c. Many places have French or Norman names, such as Saint Mary le Bon, a parish in London, Ashby de la Zouch, and Beaufort, and Beauly in the north of Scotland. The Norman names, almost entirely confined to the aristocracy, are pretty numerous; as, for instance, Beauclerk, Fitzroy, Fortescue, Delaval. The honest Saxon names are, however, far more abundant throughout the empire-such as Thomson, Smith, Black, Jackson, Armstrong. They are not considered so aristocratic as the Norman names; yet the greater portion of the Normans, when they came over, were low-born but energetic adventurers, while many of the Saxon families whom they overturned belonged to the aristocracy. The ordinary names of places throughout England and the Lowlands of Scotland are Saxon-such as New Port, Oldham, Minehead, Barnby-in-the-Willows, Stonehaven, &c. In the extreme north of Scotland and in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, the names are yet very like those of Denmark and Norway; for example, St Ola, Melsetter, Tankerness, Brindrister Voe, and Laxford. Magnus, common name for the Norwegian kings, is still used as a Christian name; and there are surnames, such as Trail or Troil, Scambester, Groat, Linkester, and Youil.

7. Turning from the places where the people are of Gothic origin to those inhabited by the Celts, we find at once, on looking at the names of places in Wales, that the people there speak a language utterly different from any that we have already noticed. We there meet with such names as Llangollen, Llanfihangel, Merthyr Tydvil, Cyfoeth y Brennin. The family appellations are equally distinct from those of the rest of the country-such as Pendennis, Ap Rice, Llewellyn. A Celtic origin is very conspicuous in the names of places in the Highlands of Scotland-as Ballahulish, Kilchurn, Kil

calmkill, Tomnahurich, Balquhidder, and Ardkinglass. Every one is familiar with the Highland names generally beginning in Mac-MacCallum Mhor, Macintosh, Macnab, Macvourich, &c. Mac means son, and hence the words MacDonald, MacAndrew, MacIan, correspond with Donaldson, Anderson, and Johnson (Ian being the Gaelic for John) in the Saxon parts of the country. Among the Irish also the Mac is of frequent occurrence. They have a Macdonell family, they have MacNeills, MacDonoghs, MacCartys, MacMurroughs, and MacGuires. The well known O is, however, chiefly used in that country -as in O'Connell, O'Connor, &c. Antiquaries affirm that it is the same as Mac; that the word as it was used of old was either mo or ma, and while the m was taken away from the former by usage, a c was added to the other. The names of places in Ireland resemble many of those in the Western Highlands, and show a common origin-as Ballymahon, Ballyshannon, Derrymore, Killconnel, Athlone, Cladaugh. It is easy to see in these words a similarity to Ballahulish, Kilmonivaig, Glen More, Glen Derry, Athole, and Cladich. It is very probable that, if an accurate search were made, a number of places would be found in both countries with precisely the same name.

Thus we see how the United Kingdom is divided between two distinct races, the one of Gothic and the other of Celtic origin, more or less mixed together. It has been generally remarked that everything great accomplished for several hundred years in this country has been done by the people of Gothic race, or in the parts of the country chiefly inhabited by them-by the Saxons of England and Ireland, and the Lowlanders of Scotland. Literature, arts, commerce, industry, civilisation, have all been the work of their hands. We must not, however, infer that the Celts are a permanently inferior race. It has already been said, in the last chapter, that there was a time when the Celts of Ireland had more literature than the rest of the United Kingdom. It would be fair to suppose that since then their position has been depressed by peculiar circumstances in their history, and to hope that at some future day they may rise to the level of their neighbours.

EXERCISES.

1. By what names are the two races which inhabit Britain known? What mark of their difference do we find? Describe the various ways in which the Gothic race came into the country.

2. Was the ancient language of Scotland greatly different from that of England? How and when did they become different? Mention some words which show an affinity between the Scots and some continental nations.

3. What appears to have been the original language of the Irish? By what means did people of Gothic origin spread themselves over the island? 4. What was the effect of the Norman conquest on the English language? Mention some relics of the use of Norman French. How was the Latin used? How far did our language derive any thing from the Greek?

5. Of what is the English language composed? Has England alone contributed to the formation of this language? Mention something in which it is quite unlike the other languages of Europe.

6. In what are the different languages spoken by the people remarkably shown? Give some account of the vestiges of the Roman language. Give some names of places and persons of Norman origin. Give instances of Saxon origin. In what part of the country are the names of Norwegian origin?

7. In what part of England do the names show a language different from the Saxon? In what part of Scotland do Celtic names preponderate? In what other part of the United Kingdom do we find the same sort of names? Which has lately been the superior race-the Gothic or the Celtic? What ought we to infer regarding the Celtic ?

CHAPTER IX.

ENGLAND during the Reign of WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR, A. D. 1066-1087.

William the Conqueror-Submission of London-Norman Spoliation-Rewards bestowed on the Conquerors-Saxon Revolt under Earl Morcar -Hereward the Saxon-Death of William I.-Domesday-book-The Forest Laws-The Church.

1. THE NORMAN CONQUEST.-MORE than a century and a half had elapsed since Rollo, the sea-king, had received baptism at the hands of the Archbishop of Rouen, A. D. 912, and been acknowledged vassal to his father-in-law, Charles the Simple, for the country afterwards called Normandy, from the northern origin of its conquerors. The fifth descendant from Rollo was Robert II., surnamed the Devil, on whose death his son William had acquired great renown by defending against numerous enemies the inheritance transmitted to him by his father, notwithstanding his illegitimacy; and now the victory of Senlac or Hastings appeared to have crowned all his wishes. William's first care after the battle was to secure his communications with the continent; and therefore, instead of advancing to London, he moved towards Dover, spreading devastation as he went. The strong fortress of Dover Castle was treacherously surrendered, and the conqueror, now assured of retreat in case of reverse, for the Saxons had not given up