frustrated, and he was constrained to return to England. The Spanish ambassador was loud in his complaints, and demanded that justice should be executed upon the pirates, as he termed Raleigh and his companions. It was unfortunate that, at the time of their return, Buckingham was endeavouring to ingratiate himself with the court of Madrid, and was negotiating the marriage of the infanta with the Prince of Wales. The consequence was, that James disavowed Raleigh's enterprise, and ordered the sentence to be carried into effect which had been passed upon him fifteen years before. He was beheaded on the 29th of October 1618, and met his fate with the most undaunted firmness, remarking, as he examined the executioner's axe, that it was a sharp but sure remedy for all diseases. THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1618.-While James was negotiating with Spain, and sacrificing to its resentment one of his most illustrious subjects, he was informed that the elector-palatine, who had married his daughter Elizabeth, after losing the Bohemian crown, conferred upon him by the states of that kingdom when they had revolted against the house of Austria, had been deprived of his hereditary dominions by the Emperor Ferdinand II. His cause being that of Protestantism, the English manifested a great desire to avenge him. But James condemned, on political principles, the revolt of the Bohemians and his son-in-law's enterprise. On the other hand, he could not quarrel with the emperor without declaring himself an enemy of Spain, whom it was his interest to conciliate; and even had he been inclined to engage in a war, his financial difficulties would have prevented him. He flattered himself that he would be able to restore the elector by peaceful means, and was therefore resolved not to take up arms; but, in deference to the feelings of the nation, he dissembled his secret views. After having vainly called for benevolences, he found himself under the necessity of again summoning a parliament, although he entertained little hope of its proving more accommodating than the two preceding assemblies.

6. When the Commons met, they granted supplies, at the same time respectfully remonstrating with the king against certain abuses and monopolies, which he had the wisdom to A. D. correct. But in the following session they did not show 1621. the same moderation; they claimed the right to examine into every grievance, and to submit the rights of the crown to the most minute control, while they interfered in matters which James looked upon as affairs of state beyond their sta

tion and ability, representing to him the necessity of arming in defence of the elector-palatine and of the protestant religion. The king, who was bitterly offended at these demands of the parliament, dissolved that body, imprisoned several of its members, and forbade by repeated proclamations all discussion on public affairs.

But every day now increased the distress of the electorpalatine and of the German protestants. James vainly negotiated in their favour. The marriage of his son Charles with the Infanta of Spain appeared to him the surest means of obtaining his son-in-law's restoration, and he was earnestly soliciting the alliance when Buckingham's extraordinary_behaviour destroyed the fruits of six years' negotiation. This presumptuous favourite, seeking to ingratiate himself with the heir to the crown, persuaded the Prince of Wales to undertake a journey into Spain, in disguise and without attendants, to see the princess his intended wife, and offered to accompany him as his esquire. James unwillingly consented to a project which was more worthy of a hero of romance than of a minister and a statesman. But the journey produced an effect the A.D. very reverse of that which was expected; for instead 1623. of hastening the marriage, it broke it off entirely.

4. D.

1624.

Although this rupture was very gratifying to the English nation, who were generally opposed to an alliance which they considered dangerous to the cause of Protestantism, it was very annoying to the king. Buckingham eagerly inflamed his master's resentment to gratify his own, and excited him to declare war against Spain in conformity with the wishes of the nation. James called a parliament in order to procure the necessary supplies; and instead of addressing them in his usual manner, he assumed a tone of great moderation and sweetness, even consenting that the expenditure of the subsidy should be confided to parliamentary commissioners. But notwithstanding this unprecedented concession, he obtained a part only of what he asked, and had the vexation of seeing the Commons make new attempts upon the royal prerogative. They abolished all monopolies, as being contrary to the laws and liberties of the kingdom; and in the same act laid down the principle that every citizen was free master of his own actions, provided he injured no one, and that neither the royal prerogative nor the authority of any magistrate, in fine that the laws alone, could put bounds to the exercise of this unlimited right.

7. James, being now engaged in war with Spain, courted the alliance of France, where the influence of Richelieu's genius began already to be felt. He obtained for the Prince of Wales the hand of the Princess Henrietta, sister to Louis XIII., with a dowry of 800,000 crowns. But he did not live to see the arrival either of the money or the daughter-in-law. His health had been for some time in a precarious state, and he was now attacked by an ague and the worst kind of gout, which, being aggravated by improper medical treatment, speedily proved fatal. He expired on the 27th of March 1625, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and the twenty-third of his reign from the death of Elizabeth.

The character of James offers the most singular contrasts. He was a profound scholar, but with little of that knowledge really necessary for a sovereign. His conversation abounded in maxims of political wisdom, yet his conduct often bore the stamp of folly. Although exceedingly jealous of his authority, he allowed himself to be governed by unworthy favourites. He desired to uphold his dignity, and yet continually lowered himself by a trivial familiarity which he mistook for affability. He was witty, yet pedantic; learned, but fond of the conversation of the ignorant and uneducated; laborious in trifles, and frivolous when he should have devoted himself to serious labours. Although his sentiments were religious, his conversation was often profane. Naturally just and benevolent, he was incapable of preventing the injustice of his favourites or of the depositaries of his power. Economical, and even miserly when he had to give money with his own hands, he squandered it without reflection when he was only required to sign a draft on his treasurer. The good qualities which he displayed on certain occasions were subject to too many vicissitudes to regulate his general conduct; and as they only showed themselves at intervals, they in some measure justify Sully's description, that James was the wisest fool in all Christendom; and Henry IV., ridiculing his pedantry and timidity, entitled him a captain of arts and bachelor of arms.

During this reign the learned and judicious Bacon shed the brilliant light of his genius over the extensive field of philosophy; and the later dramatic works of the illustrious Shakspeare were represented, though it was not till after numerous solicitations that James granted him the privilege of performing his pieces in a wretched barn entitled the Globe Theatre. Fairfax translated Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, and Harring

ton the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto.

in a style as harsh as they are turgid.

Donne composed satires Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity is a work of undying fame; and the celebrated Institutes of Coke are a standard authority on English law.

EXERCISES.

1. What circumstances characterized the commencement of the reign of James in England? What is meant by the Bye and the Main? Describe the king's conduct to the puritans.

2. What new political doctrine grew up at this time? Where did it originate? State how it contrasted with the old English principles. How was James's conduct different from Elizabeth's? What did the parliament do?

3. What was the cause of the gunpowder plot? Describe the method in which it was set about. By what accident was it discovered? What was the fate of the conspirators? Against what exercises of prerogative did the Commons exert themselves? What sort of a war did James carry on?

4. What was the merit of James in his treatment of Ireland? What was its effect? What expedients did he adopt to raise money? What dispute occurred between the king and parliament? Give a history of the king's first favourite. Who succeeded him? What were Buckingham's character and conduct?

5. What discovery did Sir Walter Raleigh profess to have made? What was the result of his expedition? What was his fate? What occurred as to the dominions of the king's son-in-law. How did James act in this matter?

6. Describe the proceedings of the Commons How did the king try to meet them? What did he hope to accomplish by the Spanish match? What romantic journey did the prince make? What further steps did the parliament take towards freedom?

7. Whom did the prince marry? When did James die? What was his character? How did Sully characterize him? Mention the names and works of some of the great literary men of his reign.

CHAPTER XXIII.

CHARLES I. TO THE Long Parliament, a. d. 1625–1640. Charles I.-Marriage with Henrietta of France-Contest with the Commons-War with France-Petition of Rights-Murder of Buckingham -Siege of Rochelle-Rise of Strafford-Condition of Ireland-ShipMoney-Laud-Religious Disturbances in Scotland-The CovenantScottish War.

1. THIS unfortunate king succeeded to a throne which appeared to be firmly established, while, in reality, it was threatened on every side by secret enemies. The nation was labouring under a grievous disorder,-a dangerous spirit of controversy

in politics and religion. At this epoch, every one became a theologian or a statesman; and the multitude began to examine into the sovereignty of the prince and the constitution of the church. A great crisis was at hand, to prevent or encounter which required rare skill or extraordinary energy. Charles was deficient to a certain degree in neither. And yet, if he does not appear to have possessed these qualities in sufficient abundance, we should remember that he was always placed in extraordinary positions, where common rules proved useless, and where it was impossible for reason to point out the best course. He possessed many great private and even public virtues: his worst enemies admitted the former, and an impartial posterity will not deny him some of the latter. But he had one defect, which was the most dangerous he could have had in the circumstances in which he was placed. He was not straightforward and decided, and thus those who Idealt with him never felt secure. He gave way only when he could not hold out, and did it in such a manner that people always thought he wanted some loophole for his escape. This unfortunate propensity cost him his life, for those who put him to death would probably not have gone to that extremity, had they not feared that they would lose their own lives if he should recover his power.

Even

His marriage was one of the first causes of irritation. Henrietta of France, to whom he was united soon after his accession, did honour to her rank by the charms of her person, and the excellent qualities of her mind and heart; but the people entertained a prejudice against queens of French origin, alleging that they had never contributed to the happiness of England. Besides, Henrietta was a Roman-catholic. had she practised the duties of her religion with the greatest reserve, she would still have been suspected by her protestant subjects; but much more was their distrust aroused, when they saw her manifesting the greatest respect for the Romish church, and, conformably with the instructions she had received from her mother Mary de Medicis, protecting her oppressed fellow-catholics and interceding for them. Not content with employing her mediation in their favour, she ventured to intermeddle with public affairs, and the control which the king's great affection allowed her to take, caused him to be unjustly suspected of an attachment to popery, and furnished his enemies with the means of misrepresenting his most innocent proceedings.