In July the Opposition made a new move. A secret meeting took place in the vicinity of Moscow, and the Central Committee and Central Control Commission of the party held a special session (July 14-23) in order to consider the situation.

In consequence of this the Opposition was accused of having violated party discipline and of having attempted to organise a fraction secretly. Zinoviev was charged with having attempted, in his capacity as Head of the "Komintern" (the Third International), to incite the foreign Communist sections against the Communist Party of the U.S.S.R.

Drastic measures were adopted against the delinquents. Zinoviev was expelled from the Political Bureau of the party, and M. Laschewitch, Vice-President of the Revolutionary Military Council, who had arranged the secret meeting, was deprived of the right of occupying any Government post or party office in Russia. In place of Zinoviev M. Rudsutak, a Latvian, formerly Minister for Transport, and a strong supporter of Stalin, was elected member of the Political Bureau.

The Opposition, however, was not yet crushed. On October 1 a meeting of about a hundred workmen was held in a small factory in Moscow, at which Trotsky, Zinoviev, Radek, Pjatakov, Smilga, and Sapronov attacked the policy of the Central Committee of the party and of Stalin. Similar meetings took place also in Leningrad. This meant a new violation of the promise given by the Opposition to abstain from any party discussions. The public response to this agitation was, however, weak, and the Majority arranged mass meetings all over the country in which the action of the Opposition was condemned. The leaders of the Opposition had to appear before the Central Committee of the party and to declare a truce to all party struggles. A resolution of the Central Committee published on October 16 recapitulated this declaration made by Trotsky, Zinoviev, and their colleagues. The Committee expressed disapproval of any attempt at revising the principles of the Leninist programme, and prohibited any fractionary movements. On October 23 the leaders of the Opposition were warned to abstain from any further insubordination to the rules of the party; the activities of Zinoviev in the "Komintern were declared inadmissible; Trotsky was expelled from the Political Bureau, and Kamenev was struck off the list of the candidates for that body. This decisive blow at the leaders of the Opposition, after they had capitulated, came somewhat unexpectedly.

On October 26 the Fifteenth Congress of the party met and approved of the measure adopted by the Central Committee. Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Kamenev were given an opportunity to speak and express their views, but the overwhelming majority of the Congress sanctioned the policy of Stalin, which aims at a close amalgamation of the workmen and the peasants. The end of the

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year thus witnessed the complete victory of Stalin and of his closest supporters, Rykov and Bukharin. The latter had succeeded Zinoviev as President of the Komintern." He was also the editor of the official party organ, the Pravda. All the responsible offices were occupied by reliable adherents of Stalin, partly Georgians like himself (his real name is Dshugashvilli). A Georgian, A. J. Mikoian, was appointed Commissary for Internal and Foreign Trade in the place of Kamenev, and another friend of Stalin, Odshonikidse, was appointed Commissary of the Workmen's and Peasants' Inspection, and Vice-President of the Council of People's Commissaries and of the Council of Labour and Defence. Odshonikidse also took over the important post of Head of the Central Control Commission of the Communist Party from Kuybyschev, who after the death of F. E. Dserjinski, on July 20, was appointed President of the Supreme Council of National Economy. His successor as Chief of the Political Department, the G.P.U. (formerly Tcheka), was Menjinski, likewise a Pole. Another loss to the Soviet Government was the passing of L. Krassin, the Soviet representative in London (November 24), one of the most prominent figures in the political life of Bolshevik Russia [see under Obituaries].

The Second Session of the Z.I.K. (Central Executive Committee) met on April 14-24 in the Kremlin. A report on the position and administrative reorganisation of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was heard and discussed, this being the first time that a big national problem has been handled by this body. Other matters of vital concern which came before the Session dealt with juridical and economic problems. The decline of the tchervonetz as compared with the gold parity was viewed with apprehension, as also the fact that in spite of the greatest restriction of imports the gold reserves had to be considerably drawn upon in order to maintain commercial intercourse with foreign countries. No measures of consequence were, however, taken by the Z.I.K. One of its decrees declared all Northern Polar Territories to belong to Russia, with the exception of those which had formerly been recognised as belonging to other States.

The elections to the Soviets were remarkable for the successes of non-party candidates, particularly in the lower Soviets. Thus there were elected in the Soviets of the villages 89.9 per cent. non-party men against 6-2 per cent. Communists; in the Soviets of the "Wolost" (groups of villages), 75-72 per cent. non-party men against 18.4 per cent. Communists; in the Soviets of the districts, 49.8 per cent. non-party men against 45-7 per cent. Communists; and in the Soviets of the Governments, 36 per cent. non-party men against 62.2 per cent. Communists. In the town Soviets 53 per cent. non-party men and 47 per cent. Communists were elected. In his report on the elections, M. Molotov declared that the increase of non-party men in the Soviet institutions had

reached its limits. The proportion of the population which voted at the elections for the town Soviets was 48.7 per cent., and at those of the village Soviets 47.3 per cent.

In the domain of foreign affairs nothing of real significance happened during the year. Negotiations with France concerning the regulation of the old Russian debts and the conclusion of a Commercial Treaty were opened on February 25 in Paris, but no progress had been made by the end of the year. Relations with Great Britain continued to be strained, especially after the support given by the Trades Unions of the U.S.S.R. to the miners. The United States have not altered their attitude towards the Soviet Government. Of the South American Republics, Uruguay recognised the Soviet Government de jure in August. The PolishRumanian Convention of March 26, which was concluded after the expiration of the Treaty of March 3, 1921, was the subject of much comment in the U.S.S.R. The negotiations between Italy and Rumania were likewise followed with close attention. Great distrust was manifested towards Poland, particularly after the coup d'état of Pilsudski, whose anti-Russian bias is notorious. On May 21 the Government of the U.S.S.R. despatched a Note to the Baltic States proposing the conclusion of Security Pacts. Finland, Latvia, and Estonia had not, by the end of the year, taken any decisive steps in this direction, but a Pact was concluded on September 28 between the U.S.S.R. and Lithuania. A similar non-aggression Pact was concluded with Germany on April 10. (For text of this Treaty, sce under Public Documents in this volume.) It was the aim of the Government of the U.S.S.R. to secure peace in Eastern Europe by such Pacts, a policy which runs parallel to Locarno and the League of Nations.

The U.S.S.R. were invited by the League of Nations to the Conference on Disarmament and to the World's Economic Conference. They accepted the invitation and representatives to the latter Conference have already been nominated. With regard to the Disarmament Conference, however, the Foreign Commissary made the participation of the U.S.S.R. dependent on whether it would take place in Switzerland, for the Russians declared they would not send delegates there as long as the conflict with the Government of that country was not adjusted. The pourparlers, opened between both countries with the mediation. of France, failed, and M. Tchicherin informed the League on April 13 that the U.S.S.R. would not participate in the Conference of Disarmament. Simultaneously, M. Voroshilov, the Commissary for War, declared that the U.S.S.R. must abstain from the Conference because the Army, which consisted of 562,000 men, could by no means be reduced.

The year witnessed a decline of the influence gained by Soviet diplomacy in Northern China in previous years. A conflict arose between Chang Tso Lin, the Dictator of Mukden, and the Soviet

Director of the Eastern Chinese Railway, M. Ivanov. The latter was arrested, but soon released (Jan. 25). On August 27 Chang Tso Lin confiscated the merchant fleet of the Eastern Chinese Railway, and put the schools under Chinese administration. M. Tchicherin protested twice (on Aug. 31 and Sept. 7) against these acts of Chang Tso Lin, but no reply was received either from Peking or Mukden. The position of the Soviet representative in Peking became precarious, and M. Karakhan left Peking on August 31 for Moscow. The Russian representative in Tokio, M. V. Kopp, also returned. The negotiations with Japan over Sakhalin did not meet with success, as the Soviet Government perceives that Japan stands behind Chang Tso Lin. The relations with Persia have not been so friendly as previously, since, it is asserted, the new ruler of this country, Riza Khan, is somewhat pro-British. The interview between M. Tchicherin and the Turkish Foreign Minister, which took place in November in Odessa, though welcomed by the Soviet Press, brought no important results.

On the death of General A. A. Brussilov, on March 17, S. S. Kamenev, a Colonel of the Tsarist Army, who distinguished himself as Commander of the Red Army on several occasions, was appointed Head of the Chief Administration of the Red Army. His deputy is V. N. Leticev, formerly a teacher, who began military service during the revolution. The Commander of the Maritime Forces of the Navy of the U.S.S.R., W. I. Sow, a former blue-jacket of Kronstadt and supporter of Zinoviev, was removed from his post and replaced by R. A. Muklevitch, till then Deputy-Commander of the Aerial Forces.

The Budget for 1925-26 balanced at 4 milliards of roubles, against 2.8 milliards of roubles in 1924-25. The revenue from direct taxation amounted to 583 millions, and from indirect taxation to 986 millions. The arrears of taxes amounted, on May 1, to 105 millions.

In the Far East, after three years' preparatory work, an administrative reform was carried out by which, instead of four Governments, nine districts have been established: Kamtchatka, Nikolajewsk, Sakhalin, Zejsk, Sretiensk, Tchita, Amur, Khabarovsk, and Vladivostok. The basis of this reform is the establishment of homogeneous economic units, and the present administrative division of the whole of the U.S.S.R. is to be remodelled in accordance with this idea. A new Soviet Republic, the Tadschikistan S.S.R., has been formed in the south-east of Soviet Central Asia, in the mountain country of Pamir and the Altai, an autonomous territory of 120,000 square versts, with a population of 700,000.

LATVIA.

On December 18 a new Socialist Government came into office, with M. Skujenieks as Premier and M. Cielens as Minister of Foreign

Affairs. The programme which it laid before Parliament proved to be comparatively moderate. It was known to be pro-Russian in sympathy, but it was reminded by the Press to take warning from Kovno of what happened to Governments that betrayed the national interest.

LITHUANIA.

The Liberal-Socialist Government of M. Slezevicius, which was in power during the greater part of the year, pursued a policy of friendship towards Russia, and concluded, in the autumn, a pact of non-aggression with that country. It was violently overthrown by a military coup d'état carried out in Kovno in the night of November 16-17 under the leadership of Colonel Glovatsky. The authors of the coup alleged as their ground of action the administrative laxity of the Government, which, they said, had permitted the development of a dangerous Communist conspiracy; they professed, in fact, to have evidence that a Communist outbreak was planned for January. The insurgents overthrew the Government of M. Slezevicius and arrested all its members, who, however, were released almost immediately. After the first excitement had passed, Parliament was summoned, and it duly met, though certain sections of the members refused to attend. It elected M. Smetona as President of the Republic in place of Dr. Grinius, who had resigned, and a Cabinet was formed by M. Valdemaras of the Clerical Party. About 250 Communists were arrested, and of these four were executed. Apart from this, no complications, either internal or external, followed the coup.

POLAND.

Two events stand out in the history of Poland in 1926—her admission to the Council of the League of Nations and the coup d'état of Marshal Pilsudski.

Although Poland had never of herself thought of applying for a seat on the Council of the League of Nations, yet when the idea was suggested by France early in 1926 it was taken up in the country with enthusiasm. During the debate in the Diet in February on the ratification of the Treaty of Locarno-which was decided on only in the face of considerable opposition—a resolution was passed with the support of all parties expressing a firm desire that a permanent seat on the League Council should be given to Poland. In spite of the strength of this popular demand, the Polish representative at the League meeting in March, Count Skrzynski, the Premier, presented the Polish claim with a tact and moderation which won him good opinions from all sides. His reward came at the next meeting of the League in September, when Poland was elected to a temporary seat on the Council for